4. IMMIGRANTS

In 1868, a 24-year-old German stowaway landed in Denver, where he came to appreciate the frontier virtue of not questioning a man’s past. Orphaned at age 15, this youngster was running away from personal tragedies and long, compulsory—and often deadly—military service in the Prussian army. Like some 50,000 other foreign-born immigrants reaching Denver before the 1920s, Adolph Kuhrs wanted a chance to start anew in a new world.

Kuhrs changed the spelling of his name to Coors and established what would become the world’s largest single brewery. America attracted 55,000 Germans—and almost 500,000 immigrants—the year Coors arrived in Denver. Germans were the most numerous of many immigrants coming to Colorado between the 1860s and the 1920s, when the U. S. began officially restricting immigration and the Ku Klux Klan began unofficially making foreigners feel unwelcome.

On his 1880s visit to Denver, Oscar Wilde characterized it as one of the few cities in the world where practically none of the adult residents were native-born. From the beginning, Denver has been a city of newcomers. More people have been residents by choice than by accident of birth. Many Denverites, including the pioneer generation, came from New York, Ohio, Illinois, and Missouri. In more recent times, many have also come from Texas and California.

Distance from the Atlantic and Pacific shores may have been the main reason the foreign-born were always a minority. Denver never had the teeming immigrant neighborhoods of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, or San Francisco. Between 1880 and 1920, during the high tide of immigration to the U. S., only one-fourth to one-fifth of Denver’s residents were foreign born. Among the immigrants in 19th century Denver, Germans, Irish, English, Swedes, Scots, and Italians were most numerous.

Germans

Of Denver’s immigrants, the most prominent, prosperous and populous were the Germans. In 1870, according to the census calculations of historian Stephen J. Leonard, Germans in Denver had more large fortunes (above $4,000) than the English, Irish, Swedes and Scots combined, although the latter groups consolidated had a far greater population. Typically Germans arrived with more money and earned and saved more after arriving in the Mile High City.

Among the German movers and shakers were brewers Adolph Coors and Adolph and Philip Zang; Charles Kountze and William Berger of Colorado National Bank, developer Walter von Richthofen, capitalist William Barth, pickle and cannery czar Max Kuner, hardware dealer George Tritch, carpenter and contractor Frank Kirchof, and Mayor Wolfe Londoner. Second generation Germans included William Byers of the Rocky Mountain News and Robert S. Roeschlaub, Denver’s great pioneer architect.

One German immigrant, Charles Boettcher, developed the mightiest and most successfully diversified financial empire in the Rockies. Rather than sink his money into one industry, such as mining, Boettcher concentrated on hardware and mining supplies. Moving into agriculture even before mining began to flounder, Boettcher fathered the Great Western Sugar Company. To consruct his sugar beet plants, he organized the Ideal Cement Company.

Boettcher and other German-born immigrants were joined by Germans from Russia. The Volga-Deutsch, as they were sometimes called, had been enlisted by Catherine the Great to settle in Russia’s Volga Valley. After the German-born czarina died, other Russian rulers were less kind to these Teutons, forcing them to join the Russian military and to otherwise become more Russian. Subsequently thousands fled Russia. Many settled on the Great Plains of North America, including eastern Colorado’s South Platte Valley.

All sorts of Germans, unified by a common language, joined together to form ethnic clubs. As early as 1865, Germans organized a local branch of the German Turnverein, an international organization dedicated to German culture, exercise and sociability. "The German Temple of Art," as historian William B. Vickers called it, built the largest hall in town, a popular place for calisthenics, games, dances, balls, concerts, and political rallies. At the Turnverein, now Colorado’s oldest ethnic club, Teutons could read German language newspapers, magazines and books, hear German opera and music, and enjoy the Denver Mäennerchor, a singing group founded in 1872.

While other ethnic groups suffered varying degrees of harassment in Denver, the well-organized Germans had enough political clout to discourage discrimination and encourage deference. Such was the case in 1874, when a policeman tried to arrest a patron in the Turnverein for drinking beer after midnight. Germans ejected the officer and shot off a letter to city hall: "We want it clearly understood that we want no policemen in our hall in any official capacity." Shortly thereafter, Mayor Francis Chase promised to comply with this request.

Germans took a keen interest in public education, persuading the Colorado legislature to pass a law in 1877 requiring the teaching of German and of gymnastics in the public schools. The active German element led Colorado to print its laws, from 1877 to 1889, in German, as well as in English and Spanish. Of several German newspapers published in Denver, the longest lived was the Colorado Herald, which championed German causes until it became a casualty of World War II.

By 1880, a third of Denver’s 48 saloons were owned by German or Austrian-born immigrants. Inside, customers spoke and sang in German, read German newspapers and magazines, consumed sauerkraut and strudel, and quaffed beer. Denver establishments such as the Bavarian House, Deutsches House, the Edelweiss, Germania Hall, Heidelberg Cafe, Mozart Hall, Saxonia Hall and Walhalla Hall offered not only "Dutch [Deutsche or German] lunches," but the customs and culture of the old country.

Baron Walter von Richthofen, one of the most exuberant Germans, told his countrymen that "Denver is called the ‘parlor city’ on account of its cleanliness and beauty.... It is the center of science, art, intelligence, and refinement of the West." Frederick Steinhauer, a founder of the Denver Turnverein and a member of the territorial legislature, wrote to German newspapers extolling Colorado as "a better place for a young man to secure his living and independence."

Germans built many of the city’s first fine churches. Jewish Germans erected Temple Emanuel; German Catholics built St. Elizabeth’s. German Congregationalists, German Methodists, the German Reformed Church, and German Baptists all constructed substantial early houses of worship, while German Lutherans filled two congregations.

Coloradans benefitted from the Teutonic interest in music and culture. In 1873, the Kaltenbach family ordered a thousand-dollar orchestrion from Germany. When the elaborate instrument arrived a year later, the Kaltenbachs renamed their tavern Orchestrion Hall. It took a week to assemble and tune the 11-foot high machine and attach the reeds, horns, drums, and xylophone. To celebrate the instrument’s debut, hundreds crowded into the hall. "No one," an observer recalled, "had ever supposed there were so many Germans in the region and [all] were amazed that the beer held out through the long night." As Germans drank and sang along, the largest musical apparatus in the Rockies ground out "Die Wacht am Rhein," George Schweitzer’s "Yodel Hi Lee Hi Loo," and Ludwig von Beethoven’s "Moonlight Sonata."

Teutons also gave the Queen City one of its first annual festivals. When the city’s German brewers cleaned out their beer fermenting vats in May, they made from the residue dark syrupy bock beer. Bock is the German word for for goat and those who drank this spring beer were expected to act like youthful billy goats. Editor Byers reported on May 21, 1874 that all nationalities joined in the spring beer fest as large wagons, decorated with flags and laden with kegs of beer, rumbled through the streets to the saloons. Otto Hienrich’s Saloon at 16th and Larimer set the record for Bock Beer Day 1874, serving some 3,000 glasses of beer, 50 loaves of bread and 125 pounds of meat.

Although Germans had a happier life in 19-century Denver than most ethnic groups, the twentieth century changed that. The swelling prohibition movement tended to blame all evil on drink. Breweries and saloons, according to nativists, were un-American bastions where people spoke German and plotted against the established order. Countering the attack of the "temperentzlers," Germans formed the Citizens Protective Union, which defended the saloon as "the poor man’s club house." Saloons served as lodging halls and restaurants for many immigrants, places where they could cash checks, borrow money and receive credit, find jobs, and meet with their countrymen. Politically saloons were often the place for registering and organizing new voters, havens for both front hall rallies and backroom deals.

Xenophobes hoping to crack down on foreigners and their "un-American" activities joined Prohibitionists to vote for statewide prohibition. The dry spell began for Coloradans on New Years’s Day, 1916. Many Germans lost their jobs in the liquor business. The Zang Brewery, Neef Brothers Brewery and dozens of distributors and bottlers closed their doors along with some 400 Denver Saloons.

An even heavier blow came to the Teutonic community with the outbreak of World War I. Germans became the target of a widespread hate campaigns. Regardless of their professed and proven patriotism, Germans lost their jobs, and were physically and verbally abused. The Denver Public School District outlawed German language classes. Restaurants renamed sauerkraut "liberty cabbage" and hamburgers became "liberty steaks." "Patriotic" places put up signs such as: "There are two places to talk German. In hell and in Germany. Go there to speak it."

After the double-barreled blow of Prohibition and World War I, this group that had contributed so much to Denver’s cultural, educational and social life never fully reemerged as a distinctive ethnic community.

Irish

Throughout the 19th century, the Irish comprised Denver’s second largest immigrant group. The Irish-born represented less than three percent of the city’s population, but were highly visible with their saloons, clubs, churches, and political presence. In a predominantly non-Irish city, Irishmen served as city councilmen, and occasionally as mayor, although the first Irish Catholic governor, Stephen L. R. McNichols, would not be elected until 1957, three years before John F. Kennedy’s election as president.

Despite prejudice against them and the highest arrest record for any ethnic group, the Irish seemed irrepressible. Their political clout revolved around saloonkeepers, policemen, and politicians, three groups attracting large numbers of gregarious, power-seeking Irishmen. Early day police chiefs David J. Cook and James B. Veatch were one-time saloonkeepers, as was the pioneer marshall, "Noisy Tom" Pollock.

The Irish proved to be one of the most prolific immigrant groups. Unlike Scandinavians, Italians, Greeks, Chinese, and most other groups, both sexes of Irish came. Irish girls were in great demand as domestics and factory workers. Starving times in Ireland due to the potato famine led many families, however reluctantly, to send daughters as well as sons to America, their only hope for a decent life. With as many Irish women as men in the new country, the Irish tended to marry each other and raise large families. Many immigrants came to make their fortunes and then return to their homelands and their sweethearts.

Denver’s Irish, like the Germans, experienced little trouble melting into the mainstream. "No Irish Need Apply" signs stayed back on the Eastern Seaboard for several reasons. The presence of Indians, Hispanics, Asians and Blacks at the bottom of society pushed the English-speaking, white Irish up a few notches in western cities. If people could assert their superiority by treating red, brown, yellow, and black men as inferior, they were less likely to discriminate against whites, even if they were Irish.

Like the Germans, the Irish were generally acculturated by the time they reached Denver. Unlike the impoverished, Gaelic speaking, just-off-the boat Irish who flooded into Boston and New York, they usually arrived in Denver with job skills and other assets, often including a spouse and family. Most had spent time in Boston, New York, or elsewhere in North America, learning American English, American ways and accumulating some capital. Many came via Canada, a large source of nineteenth-century Denver immigrants. Most Canadians were of British, Scottish, Irish or French extraction. Colorado’s great mineral rushes and the booming city of Denver attracted many Canadians who might otherwise have settled the colder and poorer Canadian West.

Most Irish came to Colorado as miners or as "terriers," as the Irish railroad construction crews called themselves. Like the railroads themselves, many Irish made Denver their headquarters, settling into the working class neighborhoods of northeast and northwest Denver. St. Leo’s church in Auraria and St. Patrick’s in North Denver were rallying points, as were Irish saloons. Irish- born saloonkeepers ran 10 percent of all Denver. Late into the night, strains of "My Wild Irish Rose," "Wearing of the Green," "Danny Boy," and "Where the River Shannon Flows" drifted out of tavern doors.

Not only in groggeries, but in numerous ethnic clubs, the Irish fraternized. Denver’s Fenian Brotherhood organized as early as 1865 to celebrate July 4th, a holiday whose anti-English overtones delighted the Irish. That same year, according to the Denver Times, October 18, 1873, one Irishmen supposedly wrote home to his brother, "Dear Patrick come! A dollar a day for ditching, no hanging for stalign, Irish Petaties a dollar a bushel, and whiskey the same!"

Denver’s Irish organized local chapters of the Ancient Order of Hibernians, the Daughters of Erin, the Irish Progressive Society, the Land League, a Ladies Land League, the St. Patrick’s Mutual Benevolent Association, and the Shamrock Athletic Club. Denver’s wealthiest Irishman and a major employer of his countryman, John K. Mullen, presided over the St. Joseph’s Total Abstinence Society, an effort to reform the city’s hard-drinking Celts. Drinking no doubt contributed to the astronomical arrest records for the Irish-born, which were often higher than those of all other foreign-born groups combined in 19th-century Denver.

The Rocky Mountain Celt, the short-lived Western Irishman, and the Colorado Catholic further promoted Irish solidarity. Well-organized Irishmen elected one of their own, Robert Morris, mayor of Denver in 1881. He defeated George Tritch, a favorite of the largier and wealthier German community. This election, noted J. K. Mullen, "united the Irishmen as they have never been united before." Although more than 75 percent of Denver’s Irish were registered as Democrats they crossed party lines en masse to elect their countryman, a Republican. Morris rewarded his constituency by sanctioning the city’s first St. Patrick’s Day parade in 1883.

Mayor Robert W. Speer made the parade an official city function in 1906, a practice continued until World War I. Anti-Catholic, anti-immigrant, and anti-liquor interests help suppress St. Patrick’s Day parades until the 1960s when the parade was revived. Since then, Denver’s Irish parade has become one of America’s largest, partly by welcoming any and all celebrants—even gays and Englishmen.

English

Although the English were Denver’s third-largest foreign-born group after the Germans and the Irish, they were not as visible, blending into the dominant Anglo society. Behind the scenes, the British reinforced an Anglophilic culture underwritten by an estimated £50,000,000 which Britons invested in Colorado before World War I.

Unlike non-English-speaking peoples, English-born Denverites saw less need to organize ethnically. They, like U.S. born Anglo-Americans, generally assumed they were the prevalent culture. Not only the language but English capital prevailed, bankrolling Colorado mining, railroads, and ranching. By 1890, 25 British mining firms were digging for Colorado paydirt.

Railroads, which were first developed in England, began criss-crossing Colorado with considerable financial support from the British Isles. The Denver & Rio Grande Railroad, for instance, was a favorite of British investors. Dr. William A. Bell, a London society doctor, became interested in the D&RG, invested, and promoted it among his patients. His son, Dr. William A. Bell, Jr., became so intrigued with this narrow gauge "toy" railroad, that he came to America, where he wound up as the road’s vice president. Young Bell wrote a book, New Tracks in North America (London: 1870) explaining and promoting Colorado railroads to English readers and capitalists.

Ranching also appealed to the English, who had no trouble imagining the rewards of roast beef, milk, and fresh cream. The Scottish investor James Duff steered English investors into the Colorado Ranch Company and other agricultural schemes such as the High Line Canal, an 88-mile long diversion of South Platte Water to turn south and east Denver into profitable agricultural land. The Highline Canal, or "English Ditch," completed in 1882 at a cost of $550,000, nourished the development of both Denver and its eastern suburb, Aurora.

Duff spearheaded the creation and activities of The Colorado Mortgage and Investment Company, which shaped Denver as well as surrounding farms and ranches. That firm erected the Windsor, Denver’s first fine hotel, and the adjacent office block, the Barclay. Duff and other Britons helped build the Denver Club and erected fine residences, both personal and speculative, throughout the city.

The immensity of the prairies surrounding Denver astonished Englishmen such as Richard B. Townshend. In his book, A Tenderfoot in Colorado, Townshend describes the ranch life that lured many Englishmen, or at least their capital, to the former "Great American Desert." Like many other Englishmen, Townshend came with capital and letters of introduction, which gave him access to governors and bankers, to the best clubs and families.

By the 1880s, the St. George’s Association and the Albion Club were organizing cricket matches in Denver. Englishmen also belonged to the Denver Club, the Denver Athletic Club, the University Club, and the Denver Country Club—all exclusive enclaves more or less pursuing standards based on those of Britain’s private clubs. Although Englishman G. W. Stevens pronounced the Queen City of the Plains "more plain than Queenly," he and his countrymen did much to transform the raw western crossroads into a handsome and prosperous metropolis with solid Victorian churches, office buildings, hotels, clubs, and mansions. Unlike Colorado Springs, Denver did not call itself "Little London." Yet visitors staying at the Brown Place, Oxford and Windsor hotels, admiring St. John’s Episcopal Cathedral, and touring Capitol Hill’s elegant Queen Anne and English Revival-style mansion districts might conclude that the English set the city’s standards.

Swedes

Swedish immigrants were the fourth-most common foreign-born group in Denver according to the 1900 census. Danes and Norwegians also came, but in far smaller numbers. Denver in 1890 had the eighth-largest Swedish population among U. S. cities. By 1900, the city had eight Swedish societies, led by the Skandia Benevolent Association founded in 1876.

Most Swedes were bachelors who came to make money and then return to their homes in the Midwest or the old country. Swedes clustered around their churches, such as the lovely sandstone Swedish Evangelical Lutheran Church and graveyard at Ryssby, northwest of Boulder. Denver Swedes congregated at Augustana Lutheran Church, the Swedish Baptist Church, the Methodist Episcopal Chapel in the basement of Trinity United Methodist Church, as well as the Swedish Evangelical Lutheran Church in northeast Denver, where many worked in the smelters—the hardest, hottest, most dangerous work in town.

Hard-working Swedes began looking for other jobs, as smelters began closing down and laying off workers in the early 1900s, and as Colorado’s silver and gold processing industry faded. Others tried farming, where the odds were also tough. Aldor Olson settled on a farm near Kersey, Colorado. His crop was hailed out in 1925, and again in 1926 and 1927. In 1928 he headed to Denver, looking for work. He found it at Eaton Metals, a metal fabricating firm that made livestock watering tanks and oil drums.

Nearly all of Eaton’s employees were Swedes, Olson recalled in a July 1, 1996 interview with Kevin Rucker (CU-Denver history M.A. Thesis, 1997, "Eaton Metal Products: From Stock Tanks to Missile Silos."):

"Not only were they all Swedish, but families: father and son, uncles and nephews. The Superintendent, Al Lindor, who was also a Swede, went into Mr. Travis [the president of Eaton Metals] and told him that he had a complaint that there too many Swedes working there and Mr. Travis says, ‘Well, what about those Swedes?’ Al Lindor said, ‘They’re the best workers I got.’ Mr. Travis said, ‘Well, the next time you hire somebody, hire a Swede.’"

Prominent Swedes included Edgar M. Wahlberg, born in Denver to immigrants. After working his way through the University of Denver’s Iliff School of Theology, Rev. Wahlberg took on a bankrupt urban parish, Grace Methodist Church. He transformed Grace into one of the most successful, reform-minded churches in Colorado, which set the pace in helping Denver’s poor cope with the Great Depression. His church opened an employment agency, shoe shop, barbershop, and food, clothing and fuel distribution center. Wahlberg’s legendary Denver career led the United Nations to recruit him for relief work in Europe at the end of World War II. Returning to Denver, he worked for the War on Poverty. Wahlberg spent his life among the working classes, fighting the discrimination and poverty that led his father, a tailor, to complain, "I should have stayed in Sweden. Things were better there."

Scots

Although not as numerous as the English or the Irish, the Scots had a Denver population of 1,000 by 1890. One of them, James Duff, was the most influential foreign investor in Colorado: he brokered deals for English, Irish, and Scottish investors. The Scots organized a Caledonian Club and St. Andrews Society. William J. Palmer and Dr. William A. Bell of the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad laid out North Denver’s Scottish Village, a tiny neighborhood of short curving streets with Scottish names at W. 32nd Avenue and Zuni Streets, that is an unusual exception to Denver’s ubiquitous street grid. Although some Scots-Irish settled in that area known as Highlands, they were soon outnumbered by Irish, Italian, and Hispanic residents. Like the English, the Scots assimilated into the dominant Anglo culture and made less of their ethnicity than most other groups. One of the few traces left of Denver’s Scottish pioneers is a bronze statue of Robert Burns, installed in City Park in 1904 by the Colorado Caledonian Club, with the inscription:

A poet, peasant born,

Than all her kings.

Italians

Only a sprinkling of Italians settled in Denver before 1880, when the census taker found a scant 86. In the following decades the railroads, mining companies and other industries recruited Italian labor and the 1890 census listed an Italian population of 999. By 1920, their population had climbed to over 3,000 and the North Denver neighborhood of Highland became known as "Little Italy."

One of the first Italian families to arrive in the early 1870s were Mary Anne and Angelo Capelli. They opened a fruit stand and diner on Wazee Street near Union Station, saving enough capital to build the Highland House on 15th and Platte Streets. The Capellis treated both their countrymen and non-Italians to pasta dinners on Columbus Day, when they draped their business with American and Italian flags to celebrate Italian-American solidarity.

Like the Capellis, many Italians started out in the Bottoms, the slummy area bordering the Platte River and the railroad tracks. In this dumpy flood plain, these former peasant farmers found water and good soil. Soon the river bottoms were checkerboarded with Italian vegetable patches. These urban farmers hawked their produce downtown from fruit, vegetable, and flower stands. Some saved enough to buy a horse and wagon. After putting a canvas roof on the wagon and hanging a scale on the outside, Italians began infiltrating Denver neighborhoods and even suburbs with their street song of "Vegetable Man! Vegetable Man! Nice ripe tomatoes! Fresh pascal celery! Just picked strawberries!"

As the Mile High City grew, many of these farmers graduated to larger businesses, opening pasta factories and restaurants, groceries and wholesale produce companies. To this day, Denver’s large wholesale produce firms are clustered around the Denargo market in the Platte bottomlands, and many are run by descendants of Italian pioneers.

Italians who came to Colorado tended to be poor and were derided for their dark complexions, Catholicism, foreign language, different food, and homemade wine. Denverites called them macaroni eaters, wops (without official papers), and Dagos (originally "Diegos" a derogatory term for Hispanics who were confused with Italians). Many lived in tents, shacks, and shanties in the river bottoms and worked hard, poor-paying jobs—building railroads, digging coal, tending truck farms and toiling in smelters.

Mother Frances Xavier Cabrini, the Italian nun who became the first U. S. citizen to be canonized a saint, visited Colorado in 1902 and reported: "Here the hardest work is reserved for the Italian worker...they merely look upon him as an ingenious machine for work...I saw these dear fellows of ours engaged on construction of railways in the most intricate mountain gorges.… Poor miners...work uninterruptedly year in and year out, until old age and incapacity creep over them, or at least until some day a landslide or explosion or an accident of some kind ends the life of the poor worker, who does not even need a grave, being buried in the one in which he has lived all his life."

To give Italian immigrants "the holy joys which in our own country the poor peasant has on Sundays at least," Mother Cabrini helped erect Our Lady of Mount Carmel Church [photo 4-17] in Denver’s Little Italy. This dignified Romanesque church, with its ornate Italian interior, still stands at 36th and Navajo Streets in North Denver. One of the twin copper-capped towers houses the 1,000-pound bell known as "Maria del Carmelina."

With the help of Mother Cabrini’s church, as well as a school and orphanage, Denver’s Italian community ultimately prospered, moving out of the river bottoms to North Denver and, still later, out to suburban Adams and Jefferson counties. Hard-working first-generation immigrants sacrificed themselves to feed, cloth and educate their children, who often became professional and white collar workers. In a once-condescending city, Italians slowly earned respect—and even admiration—often the hard way.

Denver historian Stephen J. Leonard, in his detailed study of early Denver immigrants, concludes that most groups, with the exception of the Chinese, fared better in Denver than in many larger Eastern cities. Yet the Depression of 1893 and the rise of the anti-immigrant American Protective Association darkened that dream for many by 1900. Many immigrants, especially the Chinese and Scandinavians, were among the thousands who left Denver during the 1890s. When the economy and immigration perked up again after 1900, a new wave of immigrants came from central and eastern Europe, followed by blacks from the South and East and Hispanics from southern Colorado and New and Old Mexico.

SOURCES:

Arps Louisa. Denver in Slices. Denver: Sage Books, 1959 (1983 rerpint)

Converey, William. John Kernan Mullen. CU-Denver in-process M. A. History Thesis, 1997.

DeRose, Christine, "Inside Little Italy: Italian Immigrants in Denver," Colorado Magazine, LIV (Summer, 1977), p. 277-293.

Dorsett, Lyle W., "The Ordeal of Colorado’s Germans During World War I," Colorado Magazine, LI (Fall, 1974), p. 277-293.

Historical Journal of the Denver Turnverein, 1865-1965. Denver: Denver Turnverein, 1965. 80 pp., illus.

Leonard, Stephen J. Denver’s Foreign Born Immigrants, 1859-1900. Claremont, California: Claremont Graduate School History Ph.D. Dissertation, 1971.

MacArthur, Mildred Sherwood. History of the German Element in the State of Colorado. Chicago: German-American Historical Society of Illinois, 1917.

Noel, Thomas J. Denver: The City & The Saloon, 1858-1916. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982 (1996 reprint: University Press of Colorado).

Perelli, Giovanni. Colorado and the Italians in Colorado. Denver: Smith-Brooks Press, 1922.

Spence, Clark. British Investments and the American Mining Frontier, 1860-1901. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1958.

Townshend, Richard B. A Tenderfoot In Colorado. London: John Lane and Bodley Head, 1923.

Vickers, William B. History of the City of Denver. Chicago: O. O. Baskin, 1880.

Wahlberg, Edgar M. Voices in the Darkness: A Memoir. Boulder: Roberts Rinehart, 1983.

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